The term ethnographic research is
sometimes used as a synonym for qualitative research (Lindlof,
1991). Ethnography, however, is in fact a special kind of qualitative research.
As first practiced by anthropologists and sociologists, ethnography was the
process in which researchers spent long periods of time living with and
observing other cultures in a natural setting. This immersion in the other
culture helped the researcher understand another way of life as seen from the
native perspective. Recently, however, the notion of ethnography has been
adapted to other areas: political science, education, social work, and
communication.
These disciplines have been less interested in
describing the way of life of an entire culture and more concerned with analyzing
smaller units: subgroups, organizations, institutions, professions, audiences, and
so on. To reduce confusion, Berg (2004) suggests referring to the traditional
study of entire cultures as macro-ethnography and to the study of
smaller units of analysis as micro-ethnography. The latter approach is the
one most often used by mass communication researchers.
In addition, Sarantakos (1998) suggests that
ethnography can be grouped into two categories: descriptive and critical.
Descriptive ethnography is the more conventional approach. In contrast,
critical ethnography makes use of the critical paradigm discussed earlier. It examines
such factors as power and hegemony and attempts to uncover hidden agendas and
unquestioned assumptions.
The goal of critical ethnography is often political
and might involve giving a voice to groups who are disempowered in society. For
example, a critical ethnographic study of the role of Tamil-language radio in
the Tamil community in Srilanka might reveal that the Tamil minority does not
control much of the media content that plays a role in their culture and
provide information that would allow Tamils to change the existing situation.
Regardless of its focus or approach,
ethnography is characterized by four qualities:
• It puts the researcher in the middle of the
topic under study; the researcher goes to the data rather than the other way
around.
• It emphasizes studying an issue or topic
from the participants’ frame of reference.
• It involves spending a considerable amount
of time in the field.
• It uses a variety of research techniques, including
observation, interviewing, diary keeping, analysis of existing documents, photography,
videotaping, and so on.
The last item seems to distinguish
ethnographic research from other forms of qualitative research; indeed,
ethnographic research relies upon an assortment of data collection techniques.
Although other qualitative research projects can be conducted adequately using
only one method, ethnographic research generally uses several of the four
common qualitative techniques discussed in this chapter: field observations, intensive
interviewing, focus groups, and case studies.
Conducting Ethnographic Research
LeCompte and Schensul (1999) provide a step-by-step
procedure for conducting an ethnographic study. Much of this process is similar
to other qualitative methods.
The initial stage is to define the problem or
phenomenon to be explored. Questions that are most appropriate to ethnography involve
examining how a particular group of people view or perceive a certain
phenomenon. The ultimate goal of the ethnographer is to try to understand the
world as seen by the group under study.
Closely related to the choice of a research question
is the choice of a field site, the actual place or places where data will be
gathered. In some instances, the research question will be developed first and
then an appropriate field site will be selected. In other instances, a
researcher might first find an interesting field site and develop a question appropriate
to the site.
No matter how the site is identified, the researcher
must next gain access and decide what to examine. As is the case in general with
field research, an ethnographic researcher will generally use purposive sampling.
This sampling can be refined by using key informants, long-time members of
the group under study who have expert knowledge of the group’s routines,
activities and communication patterns. Using the knowledge provided by the
informants, the researcher determines what behaviours to observe, where and
when to observe them, what individuals to single out for intensive interviews,
and what key documents might be relevant to analyse.
Once the sampling strategy has been mapped
out, the fieldwork begins. Much of the earlier discussion concerning data
collection during field observation also applies to ethnographic research.
Researchers should take copious notes. Emerson, Fretz, and Shaw (1995) suggest
constructing four types of field notes:
1. Condensed accounts—short descriptions written or recorded in the field
that highlight the most important factors that were observed or brought up
during an interview. These descriptions are helpful in highlighting what is to
be emphasized in later accounts.
2. Expanded accounts—written after the period of observation or after the
interview, filling in details not included in the condensed version. These
documents should be as complete and thorough as possible. In ethnographic
research it is better to have too much detail than not enough.
3. Fieldwork journal—lists the researcher’s personal reactions, impressions,
and reflections about the fieldwork or the interview—primarily personal
commentary rather than strict reporting.
4. Analysis and interpretation notes— attempts by the researcher to
integrate the observational and interview data into some coherent analysis
scheme. These are the researcher’s first attempts at finding order or patterns
in the data.
Data analysis in ethnographic research follows
the same patterns as in other forms of qualitative research. The researcher
searches for patterns and general themes in the data. Eventually, analytic
categories will emerge that are checked back against the data to see if they
provide consistent explanations.
At the same time, the researcher is
interpreting the data and providing some conceptual bases for a more general
understanding of the groups’ perceptions and behaviors.
Some qualitative researchers (Daymon & Holloway,
2002) suggest that successful ethnographic research blends together the “outsider”
perspective of the researcher with the “insider” perspective of those
individuals observed. This approach is sometimes discussed as a blending of the
etic and the emic points of view. The etic approach
assigns meaning on the basis of general scientific concepts, principles, and
theories while the emic approach assigns meaning to cultural traits and
patterns on the basis of the informants’ perspective within the internal
meaning system of their culture.
As with other forms of qualitative research, the
final phase of ethnographic research is the preparation of a written.The report
generally starts with a statement of purpose or guiding research question, a
description of the method that includes the researcher’s personal feelings about
the general topic. This is followed by evidence and examples that illustrate
the main themes of the data, the researcher’s interpretation of the data, and
implications for theory and future practice. As is the case with qualitative
research reports, an ethnography can be a rather lengthy document.
